CNA Explains: What is chemical castration and can it reduce reoffending?

Singapore is open to the use of chemical castration to tackle sex crimes if it is effective in reducing crime rates, said Senior Minister K Shanmugam on Tuesday (Sep 8). What exactly would it entail and have other countries implemented it?

A medical worker preparing a syringe for an injection. (File photo: iStock/ipopba)

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Singapore's Senior Minister and Home Affairs Minister K Shanmugam said on Tuesday (Sep 8) that the country remains open to considering chemical castration as a means to tackle sex crimes.

But he said that Singapore would consider such measures only if there was clear evidence that they were effective in reducing crime. So far, the evidence remains inconclusive.

Still, other countries around the world have already implemented chemical castration in an attempt to reduce the risk of convicted sex offenders reoffending.

So what exactly does chemical castration entail, and what does the evidence say about whether it reduces reoffending?

What is chemical castration?

CNA Games Guess Word Crack the word, one row at a time Buzzword Create words using the given letters Mini Sudoku Tiny puzzle, mighty brain teaser Mini Crossword Small grid, big challenge Word Search Spot as many words as you can Show More Show Less Chemical castration is the use of medication to reduce the production or effects of sex hormones, such as testosterone, which can lower sexual drive. It is generally reversible, although there may be rare cases when its effects are permanent. Chemical castration, also known as medical castration or hormone therapy in medical settings, can be used to treat certain prostate and breast cancers by reducing the production or effects of hormones that can fuel tumour growth. Such treatment is also used for certain prostate cancer patients in Singapore. But some countries also use chemical castration on certain convicted sex offenders in an attempt to reduce their risk of reoffending. The expectation is that lowering sexual drive may help some offenders manage compulsive or excessive sexual urges.

Chemical castration is the use of medication to reduce the production or effects of sex hormones, such as testosterone, which can lower sexual drive.

It is generally reversible, although there may be rare cases when its effects are permanent.

Chemical castration, also known as medical castration or hormone therapy in medical settings, can be used to treat certain prostate and breast cancers by reducing the production or effects of hormones that can fuel tumour growth.

Such treatment is also used for certain prostate cancer patients in Singapore.

But some countries also use chemical castration on certain convicted sex offenders in an attempt to reduce their risk of reoffending.

The expectation is that lowering sexual drive may help some offenders manage compulsive or excessive sexual urges.

Which countries have implemented it?

Several countries have laws allowing chemical castration for certain sex offenders.

However, approaches vary across jurisdictions, including who is eligible, whether treatment is compulsory and how it is administered.

In Asia, South Korea, Indonesia and Kazakhstan have laws allowing compulsory chemical castration for certain sex offenders.

Compulsory chemical castration means eligible convicted sex offenders can be required to undergo treatment under the law.

South Korea was the first country in Asia to introduce compulsory chemical castration for certain sex offenders in 2011.

The measure initially applied to those assessed to be at risk of reoffending after being convicted of sexual offences against minors under 16. Its scope was later expanded to cover sexual offences against those under 19.

Indonesia allows chemical castration for certain perpetrators of sexual violence against children.

The treatment can be applied for a maximum of two years and is subject to clinical assessment and accompanied by rehabilitation.

Kazakhstan also allows chemical castration for certain adults convicted of sexual offences against minors.

In Europe, approaches differ. Poland has legislation allowing compulsory chemical castration in certain cases, while countries including Denmark, Germany and Sweden have allowed it on a voluntary basis.

At least seven US states have laws authorising chemical castration in some form.

In Alabama, certain people convicted of sex offences involving children must receive the medication before being released on parole and continue treatment until a court determines it is no longer necessary. Thailand allows certain convicted sex offenders at risk of reoffending to choose whether to undergo chemical castration, which can be taken into account when considering a reduced sentence or parole.

Those who undergo treatment may also be subject to post-release monitoring for up to 10 years.

How effective is it?

Chemical castration can lower testosterone levels and sexual drive, but whether these biological effects reliably translate into fewer sexual offences or a lower risk of reoffending is less certain.

The Hastings Center for Bioethics in the United States said that testosterone levels have been found to correlate with the risk of both committing violent crimes and reoffending.

Some research has suggested that chemical castration may reduce reoffending. British Justice Secretary Shabana Mahmood cited studies showing that chemical castration can lead to a 60 per cent reduction in reoffending.

However, individual findings suggesting a benefit do not mean the broader evidence is conclusive.

Mr Shanmugam has pointed out that the evidence on whether such measures are effective in bringing down crime rates remains inconclusive.

Similarly, Paul Cheong, senior lecturer at the Singapore University of Social Sciences who has taught criminal law, procedure and evidence, said that there is still no conclusive evidence that lowering testosterone levels reduces sexual offending or the likelihood of reoffending among convicted sex offenders.

Lowering testosterone may reduce sexual urges, but not all sexual offending is driven primarily by such urges.

Some critics have also questioned the ethics of mandatory chemical castration, given that the drugs can have side effects including depression, heart disease, weakened bones and reduced muscle mass.

There is also the possibility that sexual urges may increase again after treatment stops.

Psychological interventions may therefore be needed to address other motivations for offending.

Ms Mahmood, Britain's Justice Secretary, said after the release of an independent sentencing review: “It is vital that this approach is taken alongside psychological interventions that target other causes of offending, like asserting power and control.”

The review highlighted that chemical castration would not be relevant for some sex offenders such as rapists driven by power and control rather than sexual preoccupation, she added.

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新加坡高级部长尚穆根周二（9月8日）表示，如果化学阉割能有效降低性犯罪率，新加坡对使用这种方法打击性犯罪持开放态度。具体来说，化学阉割会采取哪些措施？其他国家是否已经实施过这种方法？

一名医务人员正在准备注射器，准备注射。（图片来源：iStock/ipopba）

这段音频由人工智能工具生成。

新加坡高级部长兼内政部长尚穆根周二（9月8日）表示，该国仍然对考虑采用化学阉割作为打击性犯罪的一种手段持开放态度。

但他表示，新加坡只有在有确凿证据表明此类措施能有效降低犯罪率的情况下才会考虑采取这些措施。目前，相关证据尚不充分。

不过，世界其他国家已经实施了化学阉割，以降低已定罪性犯罪者再次犯罪的风险。

那么，化学阉割究竟包含哪些内容？现有证据表明，化学阉割是否能减少再犯？

什么是化学阉割？

CNA游戏 猜词游戏 逐行破解单词 流行词游戏 用给定的字母组成单词 迷你数独 小谜题，脑力挑战 迷你填字游戏 小方格，大挑战 单词搜索 尽可能多地找出单词 显示更多 显示更少 化学阉割是指使用药物来减少性激素（例如睾酮）的产生或作用，从而降低性欲。它通常是可逆的，尽管在极少数情况下其影响可能是永久性的。化学阉割，在医疗环境中也称为药物阉割或激素疗法，可用于治疗某些前列腺癌和乳腺癌，方法是减少可能促进肿瘤生长的激素的产生或作用。新加坡也对某些前列腺癌患者使用这种治疗方法。但一些国家也对某些被判有罪的性犯罪者使用化学阉割，以试图降低他们的再犯风险。人们期望降低性欲可能有助于一些罪犯控制强迫性或过度的性​​冲动。

化学阉割是指使用药物来减少性激素（如睾酮）的产生或作用，从而降低性欲。

通常情况下，这种影响是可逆的，但也有极少数情况下其影响是永久性的。

化学阉割，也称为药物阉割或激素疗法，可通过减少促进肿瘤生长的激素的产生或作用来治疗某些前列腺癌和乳腺癌。

新加坡也对某些前列腺癌患者采用这种治疗方法。

但有些国家也对某些被判有罪的性犯罪者使用化学阉割，以降低他们再次犯罪的风险。

人们预期降低性欲可能有助于一些罪犯控制强迫性或过度性冲动。

哪些国家已经实施了这项措施？

一些国家有法律允许对某些性犯罪者进行化学阉割。

然而，不同司法管辖区的做法各不相同，包括谁有资格接受治疗、治疗是否强制性以及如何进行治疗。

在亚洲，韩国、印度尼西亚和哈萨克斯坦都有法律允许对某些性犯罪者强制进行化学阉割。

强制化学阉割是指符合条件的已定罪性犯罪者可以依法接受治疗。

2011年，韩国成为亚洲第一个对某些性犯罪者实行强制化学阉割的国家。

该措施最初适用于那些因对 16 岁以下未成年人实施性犯罪而被定罪，并被评估为有再次犯罪风险的人。后来，其范围扩大到涵盖对 19 岁以下未成年人实施的性犯罪。

印度尼西亚允许对某些性侵儿童的施暴者实施化学阉割。

该疗法最多可进行两年，并需进行临床评估，同时辅以康复治疗。

哈萨克斯坦也允许对某些被判犯有性侵未成年人罪行的成年人进行化学阉割。

欧洲各国的做法不尽相同。波兰立法允许在某些情况下强制进行化学阉割，而丹麦、德国和瑞典等国则允许自愿接受化学阉割。

美国至少有七个州通过法律授权以某种形式进行化学阉割。

在阿拉巴马州，某些被判犯有涉及儿童的性犯罪的人必须在假释前接受药物治疗，并持续接受治疗直至法院认定不再需要为止。泰国允许某些有再犯风险的性犯罪者选择是否接受化学阉割，这可以作为减刑或假释考虑的因素。

接受治疗者出狱后可能还要接受长达 10 年的监测。

它的效果如何？

化学阉割可以降低睾酮水平和性欲，但这些生物学效应是否能可靠地转化为更少的性犯罪或更低的再犯风险，尚不确定。

美国黑斯廷斯生物伦理中心表示，研究发现睾酮水平与暴力犯罪和再次犯罪的风险相关。

一些研究表明，化学阉割可能降低再犯罪率。英国司法大臣沙巴娜·马哈茂德援引研究指出，化学阉割可使再犯罪率降低60%。

然而，个别研究结果表明某种益处，并不意味着更广泛的证据是确凿的。

尚穆根先生指出，目前尚无确凿证据表明此类措施能否有效降低犯罪率。

同样，新加坡社会科学大学高级讲师 Paul Cheong 教授刑法、程序和证据法，他表示，目前还没有确凿的证据表明降低睾酮水平可以减少性犯罪或降低已定罪性犯罪者的再犯可能性。

降低睾酮水平可能会减少性欲，但并非所有性犯罪都是由这种欲望主要驱动的。

一些批评人士也对强制化学阉割的伦理道德提出了质疑，因为这些药物可能会产生抑郁症、心脏病、骨骼脆弱和肌肉质量下降等副作用。

治疗停止后，性欲也可能再次增强。

因此，可能需要进行心理干预来解决其他犯罪动机。

英国司法大臣马哈茂德女士在发布一份独立量刑审查报告后表示：“至关重要的是，这种方法必须与针对其他犯罪原因（如权力控制）的心理干预措施相结合。”

她补充说，审查结果强调，对于一些性犯罪者，例如受权力和控制而非性欲驱使的强奸犯来说，化学阉割可能并不适用。

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