A kingdom within a republic: Inside Uganda’s Buganda

The kingdom’s traditions and institutions have endured through colonial rule, independence and decades of upheaval

Daudi Chwa II, Kabaka of Buganda, pictured in 1937 after receiving an honorary KBE in the Coronation Honours List [Hulton Archive/Getty Images]

Kampala, Uganda – Uganda became independent from British colonial rule in 1962, but independence did not mean the end of its traditional kingdoms. The new republic inherited a political landscape in which old monarchies and the modern state had to find a way to exist alongside each other.

More than six decades later, that history is still visible in Buganda, where a centuries-old monarchy exists within the modern Ugandan state.

The Buganda Kingdom is headed by a king, known as the Kabaka, and has its own traditional institutions, including the Great Lukiiko, which the kingdom describes as its parliament, and an administration headed by the Katikkiro, or prime minister.

These are institutions of the kingdom, rather than of Uganda’s national government. Under Uganda’s constitution, traditional and cultural leaders cannot exercise the administrative, legislative or executive powers of the state.

Buganda says its traditional territory covers about 61,000 square kilometres (24 square miles) and is home to roughly 12 million people.

The kingdom’s own history dates its establishment to the late 14th century, while oral traditions trace its origins further back to the 13th century and the figure of Katu Kintu.

As written records from that era do not exist, the precise timeline of how the early chiefdoms were unified into one of East Africa’s most powerful kingdoms remains a matter of historical interpretation.

Kabaka Muteesa I Mukaabya Walugembe Kayiira and his chiefs, pictured in an illustration published in 1888. Muteesa I ruled Buganda from 1856 to 1884. (Universal History Archive [Universal Images Group via Getty Images]

According to Ugandan historian Semakula Kiwanuka, the kingdom emerged as local clan structures gradually moved from fragile entities towards a centralised authority.

“This consolidation was not necessarily driven by economic motives,” Kiwanuka said. “Oral traditions suggest that the strongest chiefdom brought its neighbours under its authority, establishing the foundation of the kingdom.”

Buganda’s oral traditions attribute the earliest unification efforts to Kabaka [King] Katu Kintu. But Kiwanuka said Kintu’s historical existence remains unverified, as the name is also shared by a figure in Buganda folklore.

Official kingdom accounts offer another version of the kingdom’s early history.

Owek Israel Kazibwe Kitooke, Buganda’s minister of information and official spokesperson, said from the kingdom’s administrative headquarters in Kampala that Kabaka Chwa I formed an alliance of five clans in the early 14th century: The Ffumbe, Lugave, Nnonge, Njaza and Nnyonyi.

As the kingdom expanded, six additional clans joined. According to Kitooke, Kabaka Chwa brought the constituent groups together through a council of clan leaders who served as royal advisers. He said the principles established through that system later evolved into the kingdom’s constitution.

Pillars of governance

Buganda’s system of governance rests on three primary pillars, according to Kitooke.

The first is the royal lineage. According to Kitooke, the reigning Kabaka selects an heir from the royal family, who is then tutored by senior clan elders in diplomacy, statecraft and traditional customs.

Princess Margaret and her husband, Lord Snowdon, attend a performance by Ugandan indigenous dancers during their official visit to Uganda on March 17, 1965 [Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone via Getty Images]

The second pillar is the clan system.

Clans are identified by traditional totems drawn from the local environment, including the civet, squirrel, goat and raven. Kitooke said respect for nature and the surrounding ecosystem remains central to Buganda’s cultural identity.

The third pillar is the people.

Citizens are not excluded from the kingdom’s institutions. The Kabaka appoints ministers, leaders and officials from among the wider population, allowing subjects to serve the monarchy in leadership roles, according to Kitooke.

Islam and the colonial era

During the 19th century, Islam reached Buganda under Kabaka Muteesa I, who welcomed Arab traders from the north. According to Buganda’s historical accounts, the Kabaka regularly hosted traders at his palace and observed Ramadan in 1877 after adopting the faith.

His successor, Kabaka Mwanga II, who also embraced Islam, ruled from 1884 to 1888 and again from 1889 to 1897. Mwanga II resisted British colonial expansion and fought against imperial forces.

“The name Buganda signifies a bundle of bound sticks,” Kiwanuka said, explaining the kingdom’s endurance. “Our people hold diverse religious beliefs, Christianity, Islam and traditional religions, but they share the view that their unity is the source of their strength.”

Owek Israel Kazibwe, minister of information for the Kingdom of Buganda, speaks to Al Jazeera during an interview at the kingdom’s administrative headquarters in Kampala [Laith Mushtaq/Al Jazeera]

The kingdom was placed under a British protectorate in 1894. British officials used the name “Uganda” for the wider territory, a name derived from the Swahili rendering of Buganda.

Defeated by the British, Mwanga II was captured and exiled to Seychelles, where he died in captivity. Buganda’s historical records commemorate him as a martyr king.

According to the kingdom’s oral history, the traditional men’s attire, which resembles the Arab thobe, was inspired by clothing worn by Arab merchants who visited the kingdom and developed trade relations with it.

Uganda’s self-government arrangements took effect in March 1962, before the country gained independence from Britain on October 9 that year.

Under the 1962 Independence Constitution, Buganda retained a special federal position within the new state, with certain legislative powers assigned to its government. The central government retained most legislative powers.

But the relationship between the kingdom and the central government soon became turbulent.

In 1966, Prime Minister Milton Obote ordered a military assault on the Buganda royal palace, suspended the constitution and abolished the traditional kingdoms.

“We never forgave him,” Kiwanuka said.

“We lived through the regime of Idi Amin and witnessed the dismantling of cultural institutions, yet the kingdom remained resilient, rallying around the king,” he added.

The monarchy was restored in 1993, when Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II was enthroned as the 36th Kabaka.

Today, Uganda’s Constitution recognises traditional and cultural leaders and allows their institutions to exist according to the customs and traditions of the communities they represent. But it separates those institutions from the powers of the state. Traditional leaders cannot exercise the government’s administrative, legislative or executive powers, and they cannot participate in partisan politics.

The culture of the kingdom

For Buganda, the monarchy is about more than the Kabaka and the institutions around him.

The kingdom has insisted on preserving its political identity at times and its cultural identity always, Kitooke said.

“Our traditions are summarised in key matters, including the way of life at home, where we learn the etiquette of speaking to people, receiving guests, and the rules of hospitality, what to say, what to refrain from saying, and so forth,” he said.

The Great Lukiiko, the parliament of the Kingdom of Buganda, at the kingdom’s administrative headquarters in Kampala [Laith Mushtaq/Al Jazeera]

He added that traditions also help maintain social cohesion, including visiting family and extended family, maintaining kinship ties, reaching adulthood, marriage and the payment of a bride’s dowry.

“The council of elders oversee family matters, promote unity and help resolve disputes between spouses,” he said. “These are very important; they are all part of our way of life.”

The kingdom and the republic

The Kingdom of Buganda celebrates its national day one day before Uganda’s national day. Neither the historian nor the minister offered an explanation beyond the fact that the kingdom itself is older than the Ugandan state.

On the coexistence between the kingdom and the state, Kitooke said the restoration of cultural rights was accompanied by an effort to preserve them within the laws of the central government.

“When our cultural rights were restored, we were keen to preserve them within the laws of the central state,” he said. “And the authority granted to the kingdom is a traditional cultural authority, and we do not play direct political roles. However, on the ground, we are actively engaged in political work through our institutions.”

For Kiwanuka, the Kabaka’s influence extends well beyond the palace.

“The Kabaka is the most popular figure in the kingdom, and even on the national level,” he said. “When he steps out of his palace, which is located one mile from the seat of the government, you can see tens of thousands of people lining up to welcome him.

“And if he were to say now that ‘we shall fight,’ then we will fight,” Kiwanuka said.

该王国的传统和制度在殖民统治、独立和数十年的动荡中得以延续。

布干达卡巴卡达迪·查瓦二世 (Daudi Chwa II)，1937 年在加冕荣誉名单中获得 KBE 荣誉勋章后拍摄的照片 [Hulton Archive/Getty Images]

乌干达坎帕拉——乌干达于1962年摆脱英国殖民统治获得独立，但独立并不意味着其传统王国的终结。新生的共和国继承了这样一种政治格局：旧君主制与现代国家必须找到共存之道。

六十多年过去了，这段历史在布干达仍然可见，在现代乌干达国家内部，仍然存在着一个有着数百年历史的君主制。

布干达王国由一位被称为卡巴卡的国王统治，并拥有自己的传统机构，包括被王国称为议会的卢基科大议会，以及由卡蒂基罗（首相）领导的行政机构。

这些机构属于王国，而非乌干达国家政府。根据乌干达宪法，传统和文化领袖不能行使国家的行政、立法或执行权力。

布干达王国表示，其传统领土面积约为 61,000 平方公里（24 平方英里），居住着大约 1200 万人。

该王国的历史可以追溯到 14 世纪末，而口头传统则将其起源追溯到更早的 13 世纪，与 Katu Kintu 人物有关。

由于那个时代没有文字记录，早期酋邦如何统一成为东非最强大的王国之一的确切时间线，仍然是一个历史解释的问题。

卡巴卡·穆泰萨一世 (Kabaka Muteesa I Mukaabya Walugembe Kayiira) 和他的酋长，插图于 1888 年出版的插图中。穆泰萨一世 (Muteesa I) 从 1856 年至 1884 年统治布干达。（环球历史档案馆 [Universal Images Group via Getty Images]

据乌干达历史学家塞马库拉·基瓦努卡 (Semakula Kiwanuka) 称，王国的出现是因为地方氏族结构逐渐从脆弱的实体向中央集权的权力机构转变。

基瓦努卡说：“这种整合未必是出于经济动机。口述传统表明，最强大的酋长国将其邻近地区纳入自己的统治之下，从而奠定了王国的基础。”

布干达的口头传统将最早的统一努力归功于卡巴卡（Kabaka）国王卡图·金图（Katu Kintu）。但基瓦努卡表示，金图的历史存在尚未得到证实，因为布干达民间传说中的一个人物也有这个名字。

官方王国记载提供了王国早期历史的另一个版本。

布干达王国新闻部长兼官方发言人奥韦克·以色列·卡齐布韦·基图克在王国位于坎帕拉的行政总部表示，卡巴卡·丘瓦一世在 14 世纪初组建了五个氏族的联盟：弗姆贝氏族、卢加韦氏族、农格氏族、尼亚扎氏族和尼奥尼氏族。

随着王国的扩张，又有六个氏族加入。据基图克所述，卡巴卡·丘瓦通过一个由氏族首领组成的委员会将这些组成氏族联合起来，这些首领担任皇家顾问。他说，通过这一体系确立的原则后来演变成了王国的宪法。

治理支柱

基图克认为，布干达的治理体系建立在三大支柱之上。

首先是王室血统。据基图克所述，在位的卡巴卡会从王室家族中挑选一位继承人，然后由氏族中的长老们指导他学习外交、治国之道和传统习俗。

1965年3月17日，玛格丽特公主和她的丈夫斯诺登勋爵在对乌干达进行正式访问期间，观看了乌干达土著舞蹈家的表演。[Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone via Getty Images]

第二大支柱是氏族制度。

氏族以取自当地环境的传统图腾来识别，包括灵猫、松鼠、山羊和渡鸦。基图克表示，尊重自然和周围的生态系统仍然是布干达文化认同的核心。

第三大支柱是人民。

公民并非被排除在王国机构之外。据基图克所述，卡巴卡从广大民众中任命大臣、领袖和官员，使臣民有机会在君主制中担任领导职务。

伊斯兰教与殖民时代

19世纪，伊斯兰教在卡巴卡·穆特萨一世的统治下传入布干达王国。穆特萨一世热情接待了来自北方的阿拉伯商人。据布干达历史记载，卡巴卡经常在宫殿中款待商人，并在1877年皈依伊斯兰教后开始遵守斋月。

他的继任者卡巴卡·姆旺加二世也皈依了伊斯兰教，分别于 1884 年至 1888 年和 1889 年至 1897 年在位。姆旺加二世抵制英国的殖民扩张，并与帝国势力作战。

“布干达这个名字的意思是捆绑在一起的木棍，”基瓦努卡解释道，以此说明王国的持久性。“我们的人民拥有不同的宗教信仰，包括基督教、伊斯兰教和传统宗教，但他们都认为团结是力量的源泉。”

布干达王国新闻部长奥韦克·以色列·卡齐布韦在坎帕拉王国行政总部接受半岛电视台采访时发表了讲话。[莱斯·穆什塔克/半岛电视台]

1894 年，该王国被置于英国的保护之下。英国官员将这片更广阔的领土称为“乌干达”，这个名称源自斯瓦希里语中对布干达的称呼。

姆旺加二世被英国人击败后，被俘并流放到塞舌尔，最终死于狱中。布干达的历史记载将他尊为殉道国王。

根据王国的口述历史，传统的男士服装类似于阿拉伯长袍，其灵感来源于到访王国并与其发展贸易关系的阿拉伯商人的服装。

乌干达的自治安排于 1962 年 3 月生效，早于该国于同年 10 月 9 日脱离英国获得独立。

根据1962年独立宪法，布干达在新成立的国家中保留了特殊的联邦地位，其政府被赋予了某些立法权。中央政府则保留了大部分立法权。

但王国与中央政府之间的关系很快变得紧张起来。

1966年，总理米尔顿·奥博特下令对布干达王宫发动军事进攻，中止宪法，废除传统王国。

“我们永远不会原谅他，”基瓦努卡说。

“我们经历了伊迪·阿明的统治，目睹了文化机构的瓦解，但王国依然保持韧性，团结在国王周围，”他补充道。

1993 年，罗纳德·穆文达·穆特比二世 (Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II) 加冕为第 36 任卡巴卡国王，君主制恢复。

乌干达现行宪法承认传统和文化领袖的地位，并允许其机构按照所代表社群的习俗和传统存在。但宪法将这些机构与国家权力分离。传统领袖不得行使政府的行政、立法或执行权力，也不得参与党派政治活动。

王国的文化

对于布干达王国来说，君主制不仅仅是卡巴卡国王和围绕在他身边的机构。

基图克说，王国有时坚持维护其政治身份，而始终坚持维护其文化身份。

他说：“我们的传统体现在几个关键方面，包括家庭生活方式，我们在家里学习与人交谈的礼仪、接待客人的礼仪以及待客之道，该说什么，不该说什么等等。”

布干达王国议会——大卢基科，位于王国行政总部坎帕拉。[莱斯·穆什塔克/半岛电视台]

他还补充说，传统也有助于维持社会凝聚力，包括探望家人和亲戚、维系亲属关系、成年、结婚以及支付新娘嫁妆。

他说：“长老会负责处理家庭事务，促进家庭和睦，并帮助解决夫妻之间的纠纷。这些都非常重要，是我们生活方式的一部分。”

王国与共和国

布干达王国的国庆日比乌干达国庆日早一天。历史学家和部长都没有对此做出解释，只是说布干达王国的历史比乌干达国家更悠久。

关于王国与国家之间的共存，基图克表示，恢复文化权利的同时，也努力在中央政府的法律框架内保护这些权利。

他说：“当我们的文化权利恢复后，我们力求在中央国家法律框架内维护这些权利。王国被授予的权力是传统的文化权力，我们不直接参与政治活动。然而，在基层，我们通过我们的机构积极参与政治工作。”

基瓦努卡认为，卡巴卡的影响力远远超出了宫殿的范围。

“卡巴卡是王国乃至全国最受欢迎的人物，”他说。“当他走出距离政府所在地一英里的宫殿时，你可以看到成千上万的人排队迎接他。”

“如果他现在说‘我们要战斗’，那么我们就战斗，”基瓦努卡说。