Remembering The Time Grumman Helped Craft A Modern Fighter For China

Updated Apr 29, 2021 8:26 PM EDT

Today, with the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Air Force’s ranks getting filled with indigenous J-10 multirole fighters , as well as increasing numbers of J-20 stealth fighters , the older Shenyang J-8 Finback fighter jet is increasingly a relic of a bygone era for the service. While the domestically-produced J-8 was built in multiple versions, the Chinese had already supplemented it with Russian-made Su-27 Flankers as soon as they could. However, for a time, the story of the mighty Finback looked set to be very different, thanks to the involvement of the U.S. defense giant Grumman.

The story of Grumman’s involvement in the Chinese J-8 fighter program dates back to the normalization of Sino-U.S. relations back in 1979. That year, the U.S. government recognized Beijing, and not Taipei, as the legitimate Chinese capital, and a new period of diplomatic and trade relationships was established. This new reality also impacted the global arms market and China began purchasing weapons from U.S. firms, with official State Department approval. It’s for this reason that, even today, the People’s Liberation Army still operates a number of Sikorsky S-70 Black Hawk utility helicopters, for example.

A prototype J-8II marked up as the F-8II for export., U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

With Beijing now able to buy U.S. arms and benefit from its technological expertise, the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) had the chance to change the fortunes of its J-8 fighter. The jet’s development had been extremely protracted, consistently hampered by the effects of Mao’s Cultural Revolution.

The Shenyang J-8 had begun life back in the early 1960s as a project for a long-range, high-altitude interceptor. Conceptually it would be a scaled-up, twin-engine development of the J-7, which was the Chinese version of the prolific Soviet-designed MiG-21 Fishbed . Although design work began as early as 1964, and a prototype first flew in 1969, it wasn’t until the mid-1980s that the production-optimized J-8I was actually ready to be delivered to the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF). By then, the aircraft was seriously outdated and only 100 were completed.

One of the first-generation J-8s preserved in an aviation museum outside Beijing., Max Smith/Wikimedia Commons

Work on the second-generation J-8II, also known as the J-8B, began in 1980 and was a major redesign of the original aircraft. The J-8II featured side-mounted engine intakes instead of the MiG-21-style nose intake on the J-8I, allowing for a large radar to be fitted in the forward fuselage. There are suggestions that some of the design features were inspired by the Soviet-made MiG-23 Flogger , a handful of which were acquired by China from Egypt for evaluation, at least one of which might have ended up preserved on the former Soviet aircraft carrier Minsk .

The J-8II was first flown in June 1984 and, while offering an advantage over the fairly basic J-8I, it was still hampered by the limitations of available Chinese avionics, which lagged behind those found in Western and Soviet fighters. As such, the PLAAF was reluctant to place orders.

It was during J-8II flight testing that Beijing began to look to the United States for assistance in making its fighter a more modern proposition. A formal military assistance program, overseen by the U.S. Air Force and nicknamed Peace Pearl, was subsequently initiated. The Air Force has long used two-word nicknames starting with the first word “Peace” for foreign military assistance projects, typically involving the facilitation of the delivery of American-made aircraft.

In August 1987, the U.S. Air Force’s Aeronautical Systems Division placed a contract with Grumman to provide avionics upgrades for a number of J-8II fighters, between 50 and 55, depending on the source, worth a reported $502 million. The package was based around the same Westinghouse AN/APG-66 radar found on early F-16s . Also included were U.S.-made inertial navigation systems, head-up displays (HUD) , multi-function cockpit displays, computers, and ejection seats. Accompanied by around 40 Chinese military officers, two of the jets were transported to the United States for tests in early 1989, where they were planned to be flown by U.S. pilots. At this time, the manufacture of the 50th jet was expected to be completed in 1995.

The Westinghouse AN/APG-66 pulse-Doppler radar., Daderot/Wikimedia Commons

While the avionics were to be supplied by the United States, weapons were the responsibility of the Italian defense industry, in the form of the Alenia Aspide , a beyond-visual-range missile, based on the AIM-7E Sparrow , with semi-active radar homing. A batch of Aspide missiles was delivered to China in the mid-1980s, where the design was further developed for surface-launched and air-launched applications.

Prototype installations were planned for two J-8lls (presumably those that were shipped to the United States for trials), which were to have been delivered to Edwards Air Force Base, or perhaps nearby Mojave Air and Space Port , in California, sometime in 1989.

At least one photo, seen at the top of this page, shows one of the J-8IIs in an anechoic chamber in the United States. These chambers , which deaden ambient electromagnetic radiation, are routinely used when integrating new radars and other electronic equipment onto aircraft, ensuring that the various emissions don’t interact negatively with other onboard systems.

The first prototype J-8II. , U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

There are also reports of engine tests and ground tests at Grumman’s famous plant at Bethpage, New York, but no confirmed record exists of any test flights of the upgraded aircraft in the United States.

An export version of the Peace Pearl upgraded J-8II was also developed, as the Shenyang F-8II, which was put on display at the 1989 Paris Air Show. Compared to the version of the jet being built for the PLAAF, these would have differed in having non-American avionics and weapons. The example exhibited in Paris was loaded with inert Chinese ordnance, as well.

However, once tanks rolled into Tiananmen Square in June 1989, Chinese cooperation with companies in the United States, and in many other nations, came to an abrupt end, with arms embargoes and sanctions rapidly placed on China by the U.S. government and the European Union. The U.S. arms embargo was enacted into law, effectively prohibiting the sale of all military items — lethal and nonlethal — on the U.S. Munitions List to China. Official confirmation of the cancelation of the Peace Pearl program came in May 1990 and the two unfinished airframes in the United States were returned to China.

Ultimately, only around 60 examples of the J-8II were completed, between 1992 and 1995 — all without U.S. equipment.

The People’s Liberation Army Navy J-8II involved in a collision with a U.S. Navy EP-3E Aries II intelligence-gathering aircraft over Hainan Island in April 2001., U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

For successive, improved versions of the Finback during the mid-to-late 1990s, China instead turned to Russia and Israel for assistance in developing advanced avionics suites. Another key focus was on improved radars that could be used with more modern air-to-air missiles, adding a beyond-visual-range capability to the jets. The main missile in question was the indigenous PL-11 , which used a seeker based on that of the aforementioned Aspide.

There are also rumors that the Type 1471 pulse-Doppler radar was based on the Israeli Elta EL/M-2034, while the PL-8 missile is clearly derived conceptually from the Israeli Python 3 . There was also an export-optimized F-8IIM offered with the Russian Phazotron Zhuk radar and Russian armament.

A poor-quality but rare image of the F-8IIM., San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive

The final and most advanced Finback fighter variant, the J-8F, took to the air in 2000, finally adding a modern glass cockpit with a HUD, as well as a new and more powerful radar. Once the production of fighter models had ceased, Shenyang continued to produce small numbers of specialist versions for suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) and tactical reconnaissance. Today, a handful of PLAAF units still fly late-model J-8s, as well as a single People’s Liberation Army Navy regiment.

The last of the Finback fighter versions was the J-8F, with Type 1492 pulse-Doppler radar compatible with the advanced PL-12 air-to-air missile., L. G. Liao/Wikimedia Commons

Overall, however, the biggest winner of the collapse of Peace Pearl was the Soviet Union, and later Russia, which stepped in to become China’s top arms supplier. Chinese negotiations to purchase fighters from Moscow began in 1990, with Beijing selecting the Su-27 to become the PLAAF’s first truly modern fighter. China was the first export Flanker customer and secured a license-production deal, and has since produced a plethora of improved indigenous versions .

The impressive strides made by China’s aerospace industry in the years since mean the Peace Pearl program is now little remembered. But it’s fascinating to imagine what might have been, had the PLAAF received a technological kickstart of this kind from the United States back in the 1980s. Just the thought of a Shenyang-Grumman fighter is mind-boggling to comprehend today.

Contact the author: thomas@thedrive.com

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更新于美国东部时间2021年4月29日晚上8:26

如今，随着中国人民解放军空军装备国产歼-10多用途战斗机以及数量不断增加的歼-20隐形战斗机，老旧的沈阳歼-8“海燕”战斗机对于空军而言正日益成为时代的遗物。尽管国产歼-8衍生出多个型号，但中国很快就用俄制苏-27“侧卫”战斗机对其进行了补充。然而，由于美国国防巨头格鲁曼公司的介入，曾经一度让强大的“海燕”的命运发生了翻天覆地的变化。

格鲁曼公司参与中国歼-8战斗机项目的历史可以追溯到1979年中美关系正常化时期。那一年，美国政府承认北京而非台北为中国合法首都，开启了中美外交和贸易关系的新篇章。这一新的现实也影响了全球军火市场，中国开始在获得美国国务院正式批准的情况下从美国公司购买武器。正因如此，时至今日，中国人民解放军仍然装备着一批西科斯基S-70“黑鹰”通用直升机。

一架J-8II原型机，被标记为F-8II用于出口。（美国国防部）

随着北京现在能够购买美国武器并受益于其技术专长，中国人民解放军空军有机会改变其歼-8战斗机的命运。这款战机的研发过程极其漫长，一直受到毛泽东文化大革命的影响而受阻。

沈阳歼-8战斗机的研发始于20世纪60年代初，最初是一个远程高空截击机项目。其设计理念是在歼-7的基础上放大，并采用双发设计。歼-7是中国仿制苏联米格-21“鱼窝”战斗机的版本。尽管设计工作早在1964年就已启动，原型机也于1969年首飞，但直到20世纪80年代中期，经过量产优化的歼-8I才真正准备交付给中国人民解放军空军。到那时，该机已严重过时，最终仅生产了100架。

一架保存在北京郊外航空博物馆的第一代歼-8战斗机。（图片来源：Max Smith/Wikimedia Commons）

第二代歼-8II（也称歼-8B）的研发工作始于1980年，是对原机型的一次重大改进。歼-8II采用了侧置发动机进气口，取代了歼-8I类似米格-21的机头进气口，从而可以在机身前部安装大型雷达。有迹象表明，歼-8II的部分设计灵感来源于苏联制造的米格-23“鞭挞者”战斗机。中国曾从埃及购入少量米格-23进行评估，其中至少有一架可能最终被保存在前苏联的“明斯克”号航空母舰上。

歼-8II于1984年6月首飞，虽然比相对简陋的歼-8I有所优势，但仍受限于当时中国航电技术的落后，落后于西方和苏联的战斗机。因此，中国空军并不愿意订购该型战机。

在歼-8II战斗机试飞期间，北京开始寻求美国的帮助，以使其战斗机更加现代化。随后，一项由美国空军监督、代号为“和平明珠”的正式军事援助计划启动。美国空军长期以来一直使用以“和平”开头的双词代号来指代对外军事援助项目，这些项目通常涉及协助交付美国制造的飞机。

1987年8月，美国空军航空系统部与格鲁曼公司签订合同，为一批歼-8II战斗机提供航电升级，数量在50至55架之间（具体数量取决于资料来源），据报道价值5.02亿美元。升级方案的核心是与早期F-16战斗机相同的西屋AN/APG-66雷达。此外，还包括美国制造的惯性导航系统、抬头显示器（HUD）、多功能座舱显示器、计算机和弹射座椅。1989年初，约40名中国军官陪同两架战机运往美国进行测试，计划由美国飞行员驾驶。当时，预计第50架战机的制造将于1995年完成。

西屋公司AN/APG-66脉冲多普勒雷达。图片来源：Daderot/Wikimedia Commons

航空电子设备由美国提供，而武器则由意大利国防工业负责，具体来说是阿莱尼亚公司研制的“蜘蛛”（Aspide）超视距导弹，该导弹基于AIM-7E“麻雀”（Sparrow）导弹，采用半主动雷达制导。20世纪80年代中期，一批“蜘蛛”导弹交付给中国，并在中国进一步改进，用于陆基和空基发射。

计划为两架歼-8II（据推测是运往美国进行试验的那两架）安装原型机，这两架歼-8II原计划于1989年的某个时候交付给爱德华兹空军基地，或者可能是加利福尼亚州附近的莫哈韦航空航天港。

至少有一张照片（见本页顶部）显示，一架歼-8II战斗机正在美国的消声室中进行测试。这些消声室可以消除环境电磁辐射，通常在飞机上集成新型雷达和其他电子设备时使用，以确保各种辐射不会对机载其他系统产生负面影响。

第一架歼-8II原型机。，美国国防部

另有报道称，格鲁曼公司位于纽约州贝斯佩奇的著名工厂进行了发动机测试和地面测试，但目前尚无确凿记录表明该升级后的飞机在美国进行过任何试飞。

“和平珍珠”升级版歼-8II的出口型——沈阳F-8II——也已研制成功，并在1989年巴黎航展上展出。与为解放军空军研制的版本相比，出口型的主要区别在于其采用了非美制航电和武器。此外，在巴黎展出的那架沈阳F-8II还装载了惰性中国弹药。

然而，1989年6月坦克开进天安门广场后，中国与美国及其他许多国家企业的合作戛然而止，美国政府和欧盟迅速对中国实施武器禁运和制裁。美国的武器禁运被正式写入法律，实际上禁止向中国出售美国军需品清单上的所有军用物品——包括致命性和非致命性武器。1990年5月，和平珍珠计划被正式取消，两架未完工的机身被送回中国。

最终，从 1992 年到 1995 年，只完成了大约 60 架歼-8II 战斗机——全部都没有配备美国设备。

2001年4月，中国人民解放军海军歼-8II战斗机与美国海军EP-3E“白羊座II”侦察机在海南岛上空相撞。（美国国防部）

在20世纪90年代中后期，为了对“飞鳍”战斗机进行后续改进，中国转而寻求俄罗斯和以色列的帮助，开发先进的航空电子设备。另一个重点是改进雷达，使其能够与更先进的空空导弹配合使用，从而为战机增加超视距作战能力。其中最主要的导弹是国产PL-11，其导引头基于前文提到的“蜘蛛”导弹。

还有传言称，1471型脉冲多普勒雷达是以以色列埃尔塔EL/M-2034雷达为基础开发的，而PL-8导弹的设计理念显然源自以色列的Python 3导弹。此外，还有一款出口优化型的F-8IIM战斗机，配备了俄罗斯的Phazotron Zhuk雷达和俄罗斯武器装备。

一张质量不佳但十分罕见的F-8IIM战斗机照片，圣地亚哥航空航天博物馆档案馆藏品。

最终也是最先进的“海燕”战斗机改进型歼-8F于2000年首飞，它终于配备了带有平视显示器（HUD）的现代化玻璃座舱，以及新型、更强大的雷达。战斗机停产后，沈阳飞机制造厂继续少量生产用于压制敌方防空系统（SEAD）和战术侦察的特种改进型。如今，中国人民解放军空军仍有少数部队在装备后期型歼-8战斗机，海军也有一个团仍在服役。

最后一款“飞鳍”战斗机是歼-8F，它配备了1492型脉冲多普勒雷达，可与先进的PL-12空空导弹兼容。（图片来源：LG Liao/Wikimedia Commons）

然而，总体而言，和平珍珠计划崩溃的最大赢家是苏联，以及后来的俄罗斯，它们接手成为中国最大的武器供应国。中国与莫斯科的战斗机采购谈判始于1990年，北京最终选择了苏-27作为解放军空军第一款真正意义上的现代化战斗机。中国是苏-27“侧卫”战斗机的首个出口客户，并获得了生产许可证，此后生产了大量改进型国产机型。

自那以后，中国航空航天工业取得了令人瞩目的进步，以至于“和平珍珠”计划如今已鲜为人知。但试想一下，如果中国空军在20世纪80年代能从美国获得类似的科技助力，又会是怎样一番景象，着实令人着迷。如今，仅仅是想到沈阳-格鲁曼公司的战斗机，就足以让人难以置信。

联系作者：thomas@thedrive.com

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