Why some of France’s most famous cheeses are in peril

Historic heat waves are putting French dairy cows that normally graze outdoors in summer under heat-related stress.

Prolonged periods of drought are scorching French pastures, leeching them of their usual lush green vitality and leaving behind parched, lifeless yellow fields.

And French farmers bound by strict cheesemaking regulations are having to buy extra feed to supplement the animals’ diets.

Some of France’s most beloved artisanal cheeses are under threat from the effects of climate change, scientists and cheesemakers warn.

“Before, we used to have a problem with the grass every 15-20 years,” says Laurent Lours, who has been a dairy farmer and cheesemaker for 35 years. “Now, it’s about every other year. And it’s getting worse.”

The result? Dairy cows are producing less milk and birthing fewer or weakened calves. Farmers who produce many of the country’s top-tier cheeses have been forced to cease production. And the distinct flavor of France’s “terroir” cheeses are at risk.

“We’ve had five heat waves so far this year. We’ve never experienced temperatures like this before,” Lours says.

Indeed, the month of July set a new record in France , bagging the title of hottest month since record-keeping began in 1900, and the third driest month on record, according to France’s national weather service.

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This summer, more than three-quarters of France’s 80 producers of Salers cheese – a semi-hard, raw cow’s milk cheese – were brought to a standstill following a series of heat waves and accompanying drought.

Salers is one of 47 French cheeses that carries the red and yellow AOP label, Appellation d’origine protégée (“protected designation of origin” in English), a certification guaranteeing that all stages of the final product — from milk production to aging — have taken place within a limited geographic area. Salers is produced mainly in the department of Cantal in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of southeast France, where cows graze at altitudes of between 2,630 and 4,920 feet (about 800 to 1,500 meters) above sea level on a volcanic massif, carpeted in nutrient-dense wild grasses.

While no two Salers cheeses are alike, the local terroir — a mix of climate, soil, and topography that makes a region unique — produces a flavor profile that can range from walnuts, hazelnuts and grass, to fermented cream, peppery spice and smoked, grilled onion.

It’s also one of the cheeses hardest hit by the impacts of climate change, as its production is subject to strict regulations: Salers must be produced between April 15 and November 15 by grazing cows that are mainly grass-fed. Supplementation to their diet is limited to no more than 25% of dry matter and permitted feed ingredients include hay, wheat, barley, oats and maize from the same region.

This year’s drought forced Lours to drop production of Salers on July 8 and switch to making Cantal, a semi-hard cow’s milk cheese similar in profile but subject to laxer rules. Unlike Salers, Cantal can be produced year-round, while the grass to grain, hay and corn ratio is more generous. The main rule is that cows be able to graze 120 days of the year.

Last month, the government body responsible for overseeing the AOP label, the Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité (INAO), announced temporary modifications for a selection of cheesemakers in response to France’s “historic drought” this summer.

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Producers of Beaufort, Comté and Abondance are among a handful of cheeses that have already been authorized to increase the share of fodder for cows to make up for the grass shortage, or source supplementary feed from outside their designated AOP zones. And the list of cheeses is expected to grow. Lours, who is also the president of the Comité interprofessionnel des fromages du Cantal and represents local cheesemakers, said their group didn’t bother requesting a temporary exemption to the rules for Salers because anything less than 50% of pasture-grown grass would not “deserve the designation” of the Salers name.

For years, producers of some AOP cheeses have been asking the INAO to permanently relax some of the regulations in response to the effects of human-made climate change, be it by adjusting the grazing period, increasing the amount of hay and supplemental feed that cows can consume, and allowing farmers to source feed from outside their AOP region. The process is long and can take years to finalize.

But does reducing the minimum grazing requirements impact the quality and flavor of the final product? According to a team of French researchers, it could mean the difference between a good cheese, and an insipid one.

In a study conducted at France’s National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (Institut national de recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement or INRAE) last year, researchers fed four groups of cows different diets for four months to simulate various drought conditions. After varying the ratios of grass to hay and corn, the milk was then collected to make Cantal cheese and analyzed both in labs and by a jury of consumer experts.

The findings were clear: cheese made with mostly grass-based cow milk was richer and higher in healthy omega 3 fatty acids. Moreover, the cheeses were also superior in taste, aroma, smell and texture for consumers.

“When cows feed on pastured grass the cheeses are softer, yellower and more aromatic, while when they eat little or no grass the cheeses are whiter, firmer and have less pronounced tastes,” INRAE says in a statement.

While the industry is very concerned about the possible effects of modified rules on its products, Christian Janier, a fourth-generation cheesemonger in Lyon, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, thinks the end result is likely to be subtle and imperceptible for the average consumer.

“The quality may inevitably drop a little given that we know that feed plays a major role in the final product,” he says. “But in the end, it won’t be enough for a regular consumer to notice.”

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Along with affecting the quality of cheeses, climate change also poses a threat to the livelihoods of French dairy farmers and a rich cheesemaking tradition in France.

Cows suffering from heat exhaustion are producing 10% less milk and losing about a month’s worth of outdoor grazing due to frequent and prolonged episodes of drought, says Lours.

The drop in milk production has led to a steady decline in supply: production of Salers cheese has dropped from an average of 1,500 tons a year in the early 2010s to around 1,000 tons today, he adds.

On top of that, the grass shortage forces farmers to dip into the hay supply they’ve stockpiled for use in winter. Lours says he’s already spent close to €30,000 ($35,000) on additional feed this summer.

“Some producers are losing motivation as it’s getting more and more complicated. We’re losing market share, and it’s hard to stay in business, so it’s difficult.” Lours said.

Stéphanie Gardes is another producer who has had to abandon the production of Salers mid-summer for the less profitable Cantal because of drought. It’s a blow, after having lost €20,000 ($23,300) last year in revenue due to similar conditions. Compared to Salers, Cantal nets cheesemakers around €3 euros less per kilo for the same amount of work, she points out.

This season, production stopped earlier than usual. This is set to become her worst financial year since becoming a cheesemaker nine years ago.

“Two years in a row is tough. And right now, we don’t know when it’s going to end. We can’t see the light at the end of the tunnel,” she says. “It’s demoralizing.”

SIFA/Thuria/Semaphore/Madelon

Salers and Cantal are hardly the only cheeses to be impacted by the effects of repetitive heat waves and drought. Producers of a host of other AOP cheeses like Roquefort, a blue cheese made with raw sheep’s milk from Aveyron in the south, and Abondance, a semi-hard cheese produced in Haute-Savoie in the southeast, also report difficulty fulfilling the AOP grazing requirements .

Every summer, Emilie Jacquot, her husband and two children escort their 50 dairy cows up into the mountains to 4,920 feet (about 1,500 meters) near Annecy, where they relocate their entire organic Abondance cheesemaking operation and set up camp in the family’s mountain chalet for three months.

This year marked the first time they didn’t have to light a fire in their wood-burning stove in the chalet to keep warm, she says.

During the rest of the year, in the valley below, Jacquot says climate change has also contributed to wild temperature swings, which can range from 23 degrees Fahrenheit to 77 degrees (minus 5 Celsius to 25 Celsius) in a single day.

“We see global warming throughout the whole year,” Jacquot says. “In the summer we have heat waves, but in winter we can have huge temperature fluctuations over the course of the day. That’s what’s hard to deal with.”

Not unlike wine, some seasons yield better cheeses than others, with factors that extend beyond heat and drought, says the cheesemonger Janier.

Climate change also drives more intense rainfall, and when cows graze on rain-soaked grass, they produce “moist milk,” a term to describe milk that is lower in protein. Cheeses made with moist milk mature faster and can develop unpleasantly pungent odors and flavors like ammonia.

“Once cheese has reached its peak, it’s like wine, the quality starts to go downhill. Just like human beings,” he quips.

Janier jokes that he was born in a cheese vat and that milk runs through his veins. He is also one of only seven cheesemongers in the country who are certified Meilleurs Ouvriers de France or MOF, a national-level distinction that recognizes the country’s best crafts people and artisans through a rigorous competition.

Janier laments what he describes as the “standardization” of French cheeses over the years, driven in large part by industrial mass-production.

“We have fewer cheeses that are terrible, but also fewer cheeses that are truly excellent,” he says.

But while climate change continues to put pressure on the industry, the AOP label remains the surefire way to identify a high quality cheese, Janier adds.

“As soon as a cheese has a AOP stamp, you know that it’s passed a host of tests for texture, aroma and flavor.”

历史性的热浪使通常在夏季户外放牧的法国奶牛承受着与高温相关的压力。

长期干旱正在灼烧法国的牧场，使其失去往日郁郁葱葱的生机，留下干涸枯黄、毫无生机的田野。

受严格的奶酪制作法规约束，法国农民不得不购买额外的饲料来补充动物的饮食。

科学家和奶酪制造商警告说，气候变化的影响正威胁着法国一些最受欢迎的手工奶酪。

“以前，我们每隔15到20年才会遇到一次草坪问题，”从事奶牛养殖和奶酪制作35年的洛朗·卢尔斯说，“现在，差不多每两年就会发生一次。而且情况还在恶化。”

结果如何？奶牛产奶量减少，产犊数量减少或犊牛体质虚弱。许多生产法国顶级奶酪的农户被迫停产。法国“风土”奶酪的独特风味也岌岌可危。

“今年到目前为止，我们已经经历了五次热浪。我们以前从未经历过这样的高温，”卢尔斯说。

事实上，根据法国国家气象局的数据，7 月份在法国创下了新的纪录，成为自 1900 年有记录以来最热的月份，也是有记录以来第三干燥的月份。

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今年夏天，法国 80 家萨莱尔奶酪（一种半硬质生牛奶奶酪）生产商中，超过四分之三的公司因一系列热浪和伴随而来的干旱而停工。

萨莱尔奶酪是47种获得AOP（原产地保护认证）标签的法国奶酪之一，该标签为红黄相间的AOP。AOP认证保证了最终产品的所有环节——从牛奶生产到熟成——均在特定的地理区域内完成。萨莱尔奶酪主要产于法国东南部奥弗涅-罗讷-阿尔卑斯大区的康塔尔省，那里的奶牛在海拔800至1500米（2630至4920英尺）的火山山脉上放牧，山上遍布营养丰富的野生牧草。

虽然没有两块萨莱尔奶酪是完全相同的，但当地的风土——气候、土壤和地形的结合使一个地区独一无二——造就了从核桃、榛子和青草到发酵奶油、胡椒香料和烟熏烤洋葱等各种风味。

萨莱尔奶酪也是受气候变化影响最严重的奶酪之一，因为它的生产受到严格监管：萨莱尔奶酪必须在4月15日至11月15日期间生产，且奶牛必须以草为主要饲料。饲料中添加的补充剂不得超过干物质的25%，允许使用的饲料成分包括来自同一地区的干草、小麦、大麦、燕麦和玉米。

今年的干旱迫使卢尔斯奶酪厂于7月8日停止生产萨莱尔奶酪，转而生产康塔尔奶酪。康塔尔奶酪是一种半硬质牛奶奶酪，风味与萨莱尔奶酪相似，但生产规则更为宽松。与萨莱尔奶酪不同，康塔尔奶酪可以全年生产，而且牧草与谷物、干草和玉米的比例也更宽松。其主要规则是奶牛每年必须有120天的放牧时间。

上个月，负责监管 AOP 标签的政府机构——国家原产地和质量研究所 (INAO) 宣布，为应对法国今年夏季的“历史性干旱”，将对部分奶酪生产商进行临时调整。

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博福特奶酪、孔泰奶酪和阿邦当斯奶酪的生产商是少数几家已获准增加奶牛饲料比例以弥补牧草短缺，或从指定原产地命名保护区（AOP）以外采购补充饲料的奶酪生产商之一。预计获准获准获准获准获批的奶酪名单还会增加。卢尔斯同时也是康塔尔奶酪行业协会主席，代表当地奶酪生产商。他表示，他们的协会没有为萨莱尔奶酪申请临时豁免，因为任何牧草比例低于50%的奶酪都“不配”被称为萨莱尔奶酪。

多年来，一些AOP奶酪生产商一直要求INAO永久性地放宽部分法规，以应对人为气候变化的影响，例如调整放牧期、增加奶牛的干草和补充饲料摄入量，以及允许农民从AOP产区以外采购饲料。这一过程漫长，可能需要数年才能最终完成。

但是，降低最低放牧要求是否会影响最终产品的品质和风味呢？法国一组研究人员表示，这可能决定了奶酪的品质是好是坏。

去年，法国国家农业、食品与环境研究院（INRAE）开展了一项研究，研究人员为四组奶牛分别喂食不同的饲料，持续四个月，以模拟不同的干旱条件。研究人员调整了牧草、干草和玉米的比例，然后收集牛奶制作康塔尔奶酪，并分别在实验室和由消费者专家组成的评审团中进行分析。

研究结果清晰地表明：主要以草饲牛奶制成的奶酪营养更丰富，富含健康的omega-3脂肪酸。此外，消费者也认为这类奶酪在口感、香气、气味和质地方面更胜一筹。

“当奶牛以牧草为食时，奶酪会更软、更黄、更有香味；而当它们很少或不吃草时，奶酪会更白、更硬，味道也不太浓郁。”法国国家农业食品与环境研究院（INRAE）在一份声明中表示。

尽管业内人士非常担心修改后的规则可能会对其产品产生影响，但奥弗涅-罗讷-阿尔卑斯大区里昂的第四代奶酪商克里斯蒂安·贾尼埃认为，最终结果很可能是微妙的，普通消费者难以察觉的。

“考虑到饲料对最终产品的影响很大，质量可能会不可避免地略有下降，”他说。“但最终，普通消费者是察觉不到的。”

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气候变化不仅影响奶酪的质量，也对法国奶农的生计和法国丰富的奶酪制作传统构成威胁。

Lours表示，由于频繁且持续的干旱，患有中暑的奶牛产奶量减少了10%，并且损失了大约一个月的户外放牧时间。

他补充说，牛奶产量的下降导致供应量持续下降：萨莱尔奶酪的年均产量已从 2010 年代初的 1500 吨下降到如今的 1000 吨左右。

此外，牧草短缺迫使农民动用他们为冬季储备的干草。卢尔斯说，今年夏天他已经在额外的饲料上花费了近3万欧元（3.5万美元）。

“随着情况变得越来越复杂，一些生产商正在失去动力。我们的市场份额正在下降，维持经营越来越难，所以情况很艰难。”卢尔斯说道。

斯蒂芬妮·加德斯是另一位因干旱而不得不放弃在盛夏时节生产萨莱奶酪，转而生产利润较低的康塔尔奶酪的生产商。这对她来说无疑是雪上加霜，因为去年她也曾因类似情况损失了2万欧元（约合2.33万美元）的收入。她指出，与萨莱奶酪相比，同样的工作量，康塔尔奶酪每公斤的利润要少3欧元左右。

本季奶酪生产提前结束。这将是她九年前成为奶酪制造商以来最糟糕的一年。

“连续两年都这样很艰难。而且现在，我们不知道什么时候才能结束。我们看不到隧道尽头的曙光，”她说。“这太令人沮丧了。”

SIFA/Thuria/Semaphore/Madelon

萨莱尔奶酪和康塔尔奶酪并非唯一受到反复热浪和干旱影响的奶酪产区。其他许多AOP认证奶酪的生产商，例如产自南部阿韦龙省、用生羊奶制成的蓝纹奶酪罗克福奶酪，以及产自东南部上萨瓦省、用半硬质奶酪阿邦当斯奶酪，也都反映难以满足AOP认证的放牧要求。

每年夏天，埃米莉·雅克特和她的丈夫以及两个孩子都会带着他们的 50 头奶牛到安纳西附近海拔 4920 英尺（约 1500 米）的山区，在那里他们将整个有机阿邦当斯奶酪生产业务搬迁到那里，并在他们家的山间小屋里安营扎寨三个月。

她说，今年是他们第一次不用在小木屋里的燃木炉里生火取暖。

雅克特表示，在一年中的其他时间里，山谷下方的气温也出现了剧烈的波动，一天之内气温可能从华氏23度到华氏77度（摄氏零下5度到摄氏25度）不等。

“我们全年都能感受到全球变暖，”雅克特说。“夏天会有热浪，但冬天一天之内气温波动可能非常大。这才是最难应对的地方。”

奶酪商 Janier 表示，奶酪的品质与葡萄酒类似，有些季节比其他季节更适合制作奶酪，影响因素不仅限于高温和干旱。

气候变化也导致降雨强度增加，当奶牛吃被雨水浸透的牧草时，它们会产出“湿牛奶”，这种牛奶的蛋白质含量较低。用湿牛奶制成的奶酪成熟速度更快，并且可能会产生令人不悦的刺鼻气味和味道，例如氨味。

“奶酪一旦达到巅峰，就像葡萄酒一样，品质就开始走下坡路。就像人一样，”他打趣道。

贾尼耶开玩笑说自己是生在奶酪桶里的，牛奶流淌在他的血管里。他也是全国仅有的七位获得“法国最佳工匠”（Meilleurs Ouvriers de France，简称MOF）认证的奶酪商之一。MOF是法国国家级荣誉称号，通过严格的评选，旨在表彰法国最优秀的工匠和手艺人。

Janier 感叹法国奶酪多年来的“标准化”，这在很大程度上是由工业化大规模生产推动的。

他说：“品质糟糕的奶酪少了，但真正优质的奶酪也少了。”

贾尼尔补充说，尽管气候变化持续给该行业带来压力，但 AOP 标签仍然是识别优质奶酪的可靠方法。

“一旦奶酪获得了AOP认证标志，就说明它已经通过了质地、香气和风味等方面的多项测试。”